Born in 129 AD Galen (Also known as Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus) was a Roman physician and probably the biggest contributor to medical research during the Roman period. His teachings remained ‘in-vogue’ in medicine for over a millennium, with his research anatomy remaining a central belief in medicine until 1543 when Vesalius published his book about human anatomy ( De Humani Corporis Fabrica) and his teachings about the heart and circulation remained unchallenged until 1628 when William Harvey recognized that the heart was a pump. Galen’s theory about the brain controlling the muscles is recognized today as fact.
Although Galen built his career in science, his career was the result of his father’s strong mythological beliefs. Nicon, Galen’s father dreamt of Asclepius (the Greek god of Medicine and Healing) demanding Galen study medicine. At sixteen Galen began to study at Asclepieum (a healing temple built to honor Asclepius). He spent four years studying here.
Influenced by the teachings of Hippocrates, Galen began to travel, following his father’s death in 148. He sought the teachings of various medical schools across Europe. In the medical school of Alexandria Galen witnessed the vivisection (surgery on living organisms) of human prisoners.
In Asia, Galen learned about the role diet, fitness, and hygiene play in health and illness. Galen returned to Rome where he introduced the idea of bloodletting (venesection), which was unheard of in Rome at the time. Galen went on to publish three books on the subject of venesection. Galen’s terminologies in his writings are still used in modern medicine today, although their meanings have altered with an increased medical knowledge of the human body and illness.
Galen was a staunch supporter of the doctors need to learn and embrace philosophy and rejected the draw of financial gain as a reason to enter into the medical profession. Galen believed the lure of money was at direct odds with the art of healing. Much of Galen’s work was based around his beliefs in the teachings of Hippocrates, with Galen believing Hippocrates was ‘divine’. Indeed a vast amount of Galen’s pathological work was based on the belief in the Humoral theories proposed by Hippocrates. Galen had a fearless attitude to surgery in an era where little was known about operating. He performed surgeries to remove cataracts and even performed brain surgeries. His techniques were revolutionary but it was nearly two millennia later that anybody else even dared attempt to repeat them.
There were failings in Galen’s teachings because of his belief that primates and humans were anatomically the same. He often performed vivisections on primates and believed their anatomy mirrored the anatomy of human beings. Galen correctly differentiated venous and arterial blood as being different and playing different roles in the functioning of the human body. However he attributed the dark red, venous blood to the liver and the bright, arterial blood to the heart.
Despite the short comings of Galen’s work his writings show a body of work that is outstanding for its time, with a level of accuracy that is often breathtaking. A fire in 191 lead to many of Galen’s works being destroyed but it is believed that his works run to approximately three million words. Speculation surrounds Galen’s death. Some sources state he died in 199 at the age of seventy, although Arabic sources claim he died after seventeen studying medicine and seventy years teaching it, making his age at death 217. Galen’s genius and relentless thirst for knowledge makes him one of the most fascinating and influential men in the history of medicine.
Although Galen built his career in science, his career was the result of his father’s strong mythological beliefs. Nicon, Galen’s father dreamt of Asclepius (the Greek god of Medicine and Healing) demanding Galen study medicine. At sixteen Galen began to study at Asclepieum (a healing temple built to honor Asclepius). He spent four years studying here.
Influenced by the teachings of Hippocrates, Galen began to travel, following his father’s death in 148. He sought the teachings of various medical schools across Europe. In the medical school of Alexandria Galen witnessed the vivisection (surgery on living organisms) of human prisoners.
In Asia, Galen learned about the role diet, fitness, and hygiene play in health and illness. Galen returned to Rome where he introduced the idea of bloodletting (venesection), which was unheard of in Rome at the time. Galen went on to publish three books on the subject of venesection. Galen’s terminologies in his writings are still used in modern medicine today, although their meanings have altered with an increased medical knowledge of the human body and illness.
Galen was a staunch supporter of the doctors need to learn and embrace philosophy and rejected the draw of financial gain as a reason to enter into the medical profession. Galen believed the lure of money was at direct odds with the art of healing. Much of Galen’s work was based around his beliefs in the teachings of Hippocrates, with Galen believing Hippocrates was ‘divine’. Indeed a vast amount of Galen’s pathological work was based on the belief in the Humoral theories proposed by Hippocrates. Galen had a fearless attitude to surgery in an era where little was known about operating. He performed surgeries to remove cataracts and even performed brain surgeries. His techniques were revolutionary but it was nearly two millennia later that anybody else even dared attempt to repeat them.
There were failings in Galen’s teachings because of his belief that primates and humans were anatomically the same. He often performed vivisections on primates and believed their anatomy mirrored the anatomy of human beings. Galen correctly differentiated venous and arterial blood as being different and playing different roles in the functioning of the human body. However he attributed the dark red, venous blood to the liver and the bright, arterial blood to the heart.
Despite the short comings of Galen’s work his writings show a body of work that is outstanding for its time, with a level of accuracy that is often breathtaking. A fire in 191 lead to many of Galen’s works being destroyed but it is believed that his works run to approximately three million words. Speculation surrounds Galen’s death. Some sources state he died in 199 at the age of seventy, although Arabic sources claim he died after seventeen studying medicine and seventy years teaching it, making his age at death 217. Galen’s genius and relentless thirst for knowledge makes him one of the most fascinating and influential men in the history of medicine.
Hippocrates (of Cos/Kos) was a Greek physician and widely recognised in western culture as the father of modern medicine. It is generally agreed that Hippocrates was born around the year 460 BC in Cos. There is very little information regarding Hippocrates’ early life, although Soranus (a second century Greek gynaecologist) wrote that Hippocrates was the son of Praxitela and Heraclides, a physician.
It is believed he trained at the Asklepieion in Cos, and learned medicine from his father and grandfather. At the time human dissection was forbidden and so little was known about human anatomy and physiology. The Hippocratic approach to medicine focused on diagnosis and prognosis, using passive treatments. Hippocrates believed that all illnesses were the result in the body’s internal balance of what he referred to as ‘The Four Humours’. The four humours comprised of blood, black bile, yellow bile and phlegm. Hippocrates based his treatments around attempting to restore the balance between the humours.
Hippocratic also believed that every disease at a ‘crisis’ a point during its progression, in which either the illness would consume the patient or the patient would triumph over the disease and begin to recover.
Although many aspects of Hippocratic medicine are now discredited, Hippocrates did make some major contributions to modern medicine. Hippocrates was humble regarding the role of the physician, believing that the body was capable of healing itself by rebalancing the four humors. Treatment was gentle and there was an emphasis on cleanliness and sterility. Administration of drugs and specialized treatments were rarely utilized.
Hippocrates used devices such as the Hippocratic bench in the treatment of broken bones through skeletal traction. Hippocrates focused on the importance of a prognosis. Hippocratic medicine was professional, disciplined and rigorously practiced. Detailed processes and practices were followed. Records of observations were kept and Hippocrates was fastidious in his note keeping. Hippocrates treated his patients kindly but his behaviour was at times not unlike that of televisions Dr. House. He often monitored the patient’s pulse as a way of telling if his patient was lying to him.
Hippocrates was the first to describe the clubbing of fingers (today sometimes referred to as Hippocratic fingers) as a central diagnostic sign of heart and lung disorders. Hippocrates was also the first to separate illnesses into whether or not they were chronic or acute and whether or not they were endemic or epidemic. Thoracic Empyema (suppuration of the chest lining) was first described, diagnosed and treated by Hippocrates. For this reason Hippocrates was the first cardiothoracic surgeon.
Hippocratic physicians successfully treated haemorrhoids, although they misunderstood the cause of them. The Hippocratic Corpus (a collection of works from ancient Greece, not believed to have been completely written by Hippocrates) includes information about the rectal speculum and early forms of an endoscopy. The Hippocratic Oath is probably the most famous document from the Corpus. An edited version of the oath is still used by students about to enter into medical practice today.
There is speculation over when Hippocrates died. Some accounts place his age at the time of his death at 83 or 90, although others state that he lived to be well over the age of 100. Hippocrates was one of the most influential physicians in medicine and if not the ‘father of medicine’, he is undoubtedly the ‘father of clinical medicine’.
It is believed he trained at the Asklepieion in Cos, and learned medicine from his father and grandfather. At the time human dissection was forbidden and so little was known about human anatomy and physiology. The Hippocratic approach to medicine focused on diagnosis and prognosis, using passive treatments. Hippocrates believed that all illnesses were the result in the body’s internal balance of what he referred to as ‘The Four Humours’. The four humours comprised of blood, black bile, yellow bile and phlegm. Hippocrates based his treatments around attempting to restore the balance between the humours.
Hippocratic also believed that every disease at a ‘crisis’ a point during its progression, in which either the illness would consume the patient or the patient would triumph over the disease and begin to recover.
Although many aspects of Hippocratic medicine are now discredited, Hippocrates did make some major contributions to modern medicine. Hippocrates was humble regarding the role of the physician, believing that the body was capable of healing itself by rebalancing the four humors. Treatment was gentle and there was an emphasis on cleanliness and sterility. Administration of drugs and specialized treatments were rarely utilized.
Hippocrates used devices such as the Hippocratic bench in the treatment of broken bones through skeletal traction. Hippocrates focused on the importance of a prognosis. Hippocratic medicine was professional, disciplined and rigorously practiced. Detailed processes and practices were followed. Records of observations were kept and Hippocrates was fastidious in his note keeping. Hippocrates treated his patients kindly but his behaviour was at times not unlike that of televisions Dr. House. He often monitored the patient’s pulse as a way of telling if his patient was lying to him.
Hippocrates was the first to describe the clubbing of fingers (today sometimes referred to as Hippocratic fingers) as a central diagnostic sign of heart and lung disorders. Hippocrates was also the first to separate illnesses into whether or not they were chronic or acute and whether or not they were endemic or epidemic. Thoracic Empyema (suppuration of the chest lining) was first described, diagnosed and treated by Hippocrates. For this reason Hippocrates was the first cardiothoracic surgeon.
Hippocratic physicians successfully treated haemorrhoids, although they misunderstood the cause of them. The Hippocratic Corpus (a collection of works from ancient Greece, not believed to have been completely written by Hippocrates) includes information about the rectal speculum and early forms of an endoscopy. The Hippocratic Oath is probably the most famous document from the Corpus. An edited version of the oath is still used by students about to enter into medical practice today.
There is speculation over when Hippocrates died. Some accounts place his age at the time of his death at 83 or 90, although others state that he lived to be well over the age of 100. Hippocrates was one of the most influential physicians in medicine and if not the ‘father of medicine’, he is undoubtedly the ‘father of clinical medicine’.
Greek MythologyAsclepius, the son of Apollo and Coronis, was the Greek god of medicine and healing. Coronis was killed for being unfaithful to Apollo and Asclepius was removed from her wound as an unborn child. His name means ‘to cut open’. Coronis’ body was burned, turning the white feathers of the crows black for eternity. The centaur Chiron raised Asclepius and taught him medicine. Asclepius was killed by Zeus for raising the dead and upsetting the world’s natural order. Following his death he was placed in the sky as the constellation Ophiuchus (The Serpent Holder) and the image of the rod of Asclepius ( a snake-entwined) staff remains a central image in medicine today, although it is often mistake for a caduceus ( a staff with two snakes).To honor Asclepius snakes were often integrated into rituals of healing.
Hygieia, a daughter of Asclepius, was the goddess of health, cleanliness and sanitation. The word ‘hygiene’ is derived from her name. She was believed to be responsible for the prevention of illness and health promotion through cleanliness.
Iaso, a daughter of Asclepius, was the goddess of recuperation. Little is known about Iaso, this is attributed to her status as a demi-god.
Aceso, a daughter of Asclepius was the goddess of the healing process. She represented the process of curing rather than the cure itself.
Aglaea (or Aglaia) a daughter of Asclepius, was the goddess of beauty. She was the youngest Charis, who alongside Euphrosyne and Thalia were known as the Three Graces.
Panacea, a daughter of Asclepius, was the goddess of healing. It was believed that Panacea had a potion which she used to heal the sick. The panacea (also known as panchrest) was a remedy that would cure all illness and provide the consumer with immortality.
Telesphorus, a son of Asclepius, symbolized recovery from illness and he frequently accompanied Hygieia. Telesphorus was a dwarf, who always kept his head covered.
Machaon and Podalirius, were sons of Asclepius and highly valued surgeons.
Apis, a son of Apollo and brother of Asclepius, was a healer. He freed the Apian land from the plague of snakes.
The Moirae (Moerae) were the Fates in Greek Mythology. The controlled the life and death of every human beings and were feared by the Gods.Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos are believed to have been the daughters of Zeus and Themis (although other accounts refer to them as the children of Nyx). Clotho, spun the thread of human life. She controlled who would be born and when individuals would be put to death. Lachesis was the ‘disposer of lots’. She measured the threads spun by Clotho and decided a person’s destiny. She supposedly appeared within three days of a baby’s birth alongside Clotho and Atropos to decide the child’s fate. Atropos was the oldest of the Fates. She chose how people would die. She ended the lives of mortals by cutting their thread with her ‘abhorred shears’. Atropine (a tropane alkaloid derived from Atropa belladonna) is a potentially deadly drug that derives its name from Atropos.
Roman Mythology
Similarly there were three Fates in Roman mythology; the Parcae- Nona was the Roman equivalent of Clotho. She was the Roman goddess of pregnancy and often referred to as the ‘Ninth’ as she was needed by women in the ninth month of their pregnancy when their child was to be born. Decima, was the Roman goddess of childbirth and the equivalent of Lachesis. Morta, was the Roman goddess of death and the equivalent to Atropos.
Vejovis (Vejove) was the Roman god of healing.
Sirona was the Roman equivalent of Hygieia.
Minerva (Menrfa, or Menrva) was the Roman goddess of medicine, among other things. As Minerva Medica, she was worshipped as the goddess of medicine and doctors.
Traditionally every tribe had their 'medicine man or woman' the person able to cure the ailments and banished the evil spirits that haunted their people. There are many Gods and Goddesses who are associated with medicine but it is a flesh and blood mortal who history attributes as being the first doctor.
The earliest recorded physician in history is the ancient Egyptian pharaoh, Imhotep. It is also believed that he wrote the Edwin Smith Papyrus. The papyrus, written around 1700 BC, is unique for it's time in that it is devoid of magical references and instead focuses on illnesses and their possible cures.
Legend says that Imhotep appeared in the dreams of the ill and told them of cures for their illness. Another legend states that infertile couples who prayed to Imhotep at his temple would later be able to conceive children.
Imhotep was born a commoner and he is believed to be the only Egyptian God who was not born into royalty. According to Sir William Osler, Imhotep was the 'Father of Medicine' and 'the first figure of a physician to stand out clearly from the the mists of antiquity.' Imothep wrote many textbooks about medicine and diagnostics. He made many advances in the early days of medicine, including treatment of wounds and broken bones. He even wrote about tumours. Imhotep was later worshipped as a God by the Egyptian people and he laid the foundations that modern medicine has been building on for centuries since.
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